Unlike Asia and Latin America, where clean cooking initiatives have halved reliance on polluting fuels since 2010, the numbers in Africa have continued to rise, with limited interventions unable to keep pace with rapid population growth. The costs are considerable. Household air pollution from burning biomass is estimated to cause 3.7 million premature deaths each year, with women and children at greatest risk. Families typically spend five hours a day collecting fuel and cooking, limiting opportunities for education and paid work. Women and girls are disproportionately affected, not only by this time burden but also by the risks of violence and assault when searching for firewood away from home.

In addition, the environmental impact is devastating. Demand for fuelwood and charcoal is driving deforestation, leading to the loss of forests equivalent to the size of Ireland each year, particularly in eastern and southern Africa. Cooking-related biomass burning produces about 1.3bn t/y of CO₂, around 2% of global emissions, and generates more than half of global black carbon emissions.

A range of clean cooking solutions exists to reduce the need to burn biomass. However, despite the scale of the problem, less than a third of clean cooking plans in Africa are funded, and most governments are not expected to achieve universal clean cooking access before the 2050s.

OPEC’s case for LPG 
LPG is gaining support as a ‘transitional’ clean cooking fuel in Africa. OPEC Secretary General Haitham Al Ghais has highlighted its potential to meet World Health Organization (WHO) air quality standards and reduce premature deaths linked to household air pollution.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that 60% of new clean cooking connections in Africa could rely on LPG, given that many communities will remain without electricity for years to come. The IEA estimates that achieving universal clean cooking would require around $37bn by 2040, less than 0.1% of annual global energy investment, with $2bn/y sufficient to drive substantial progress.

Multinationals are already investing. TotalEnergies has pledged $400mn to expand distribution and storage of LPG, aiming to reach 100 million people in Africa and India by 2030. The company supplies nearly 40 million people across 17 African countries and is piloting digital ‘pay-as-you-cook’ schemes to improve affordability. In 2024, several major energy firms pledged an additional $500mn for modern cooking solutions, including LPG, solar and microgrids.

Comparing LPG with other solutions 
LPG offers clear health and environmental advantages over open fires, immediately reducing smoke exposure and alleviating pressure on forests. Coco Chernel, Research Associate at carbon market consultancy Abatable, describes LPG as a valid transition fuel in sub-Saharan Africa, where electrification is likely to take more than a decade. She notes that while LPG is not the most sustainable option, it can deliver immediate benefits and help tackle the drivers of deforestation.

However, distribution remains limited. Only about seven LPG projects have been verified or are under development worldwide, most of them in Africa. Unlike improved biomass or solar stoves, LPG requires gas canisters, hoses and regular distribution networks. These infrastructure needs make rural access a major obstacle in sub-Saharan Africa. Nevertheless, smart-metered payment systems, such as those promoted by TotalEnergies, may help manage consumption, but add further costs.

LPG is attracting interest from fuel distributors, who view stove deployment as a way to expand their customer base. Some projects subsidise LPG to undercut fuelwood prices, but affordability remains a central issue for the poorest households.

Chernel also notes ongoing debates in the voluntary carbon market, with standards such as the ‘Gold Standard’ questioning whether fossil fuels should qualify for crediting, given the environmental damage their extraction causes and the emissions their combustion results in.

Compared to alternatives, LPG has severe limitations. More efficient cookstove design can cut biomass use by 50%, and carbon emissions by 50% to 90%. Electric pressure cookers and bioethanol stoves offer visibly cleaner cooking environments and avoid the risks of open flames. But they are more expensive and dependent on infrastructure that is not yet widespread. Chernel suggests that LPG should be seen not as the endpoint but as a bridge to renewable-based cooking solutions.

Fossil fuel status and climate impact 
LPG is a by-product of oil and gas extraction, with emissions generated at every stage from production to combustion. Although burning LPG releases 12–35% less CO₂ than coal, diesel or petrol, it remains a fossil fuel with significant lifecycle emissions. Widespread adoption could reduce deforestation but would also increase global greenhouse gas output.

Extraction methods such as drilling and fracking carry further environmental risks, including water pollution and habitat disruption. Meanwhile, households reliant on LPG are exposed to volatile global prices. Recent spikes, driven by the COVID-19 pandemic, the global energy crisis and currency fluctuations, forced many African households back to traditional fuels as LPG became unaffordable.

As of December 2024, only seven LPG cookstove projects were registered worldwide, four of them verified, illustrating both the potential and the limits of the model.

Infrastructure, logistics and health considerations 
LPG’s uptake depends on reliable supply chains. Cylinder distribution requires investment in storage, transport and refilling facilities, and can be hampered by poor roads and infrastructure. Urban areas, with higher population density and better logistics, have seen stronger adoption, but rural communities remain underserved.

LPG stoves, while cleaner than biomass fires, are not risk-free. Burning LPG produces nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), which can accumulate indoors and increase risks of respiratory illness, particularly in poorly ventilated homes. Although overall particulate emissions are far lower than wood or charcoal, health concerns remain.

Efforts to introduce bioLPG, derived from organic waste, are underway in Kenya, Rwanda and Cameroon. This renewable alternative could leverage existing infrastructure while reducing emissions, although projects remain at the pilot scale.

Cost matters from a rural perspective 
Pam Haigh, UK General Manager of Ripple Africa Charity, stresses that affordability is the main barrier to modern fuels such as LPG in rural Malawi. Most of the charity’s partner communities are made up of subsistence farmers with little disposable income. For these households, Ripple’s Changu Changu Moto mud-brick stove has proved a more practical alternative.

The stove, which uses one-third of the wood of a traditional three-stone fire, has been distributed to more than 600,000 people, saving an estimated 250,000 bundles of wood weekly.

Although the design still relies on wood as fuel, Haigh argues that practicality and scalability take precedence. The project encourages households to use crop residues like corn husks and small branches instead of the large logs typically used, thereby easing pressure on Malawi’s few remaining forests. LPG, by contrast, requires infrastructure that remains out of reach in many rural districts. ‘Our simple cookstove may not be as clean as LPG, but it works for the communities we serve,’ she says.

Affordability and market limitations 
While LPG attracts investment from distributors and sometimes benefits from subsidies, affordability remains a critical barrier. Pay-as-you-cook schemes can ease upfront costs but rely on reliable mobile networks and add technological complexity. As of December 2024, only seven LPG cookstove projects were registered worldwide, four of them verified, illustrating both the potential and the limits of the model.

Carbon markets have also struggled to support scale-up. A 2024 study published in Nature Sustainability found that clean cooking carbon offset projects may overstate climate benefits by up to 1,000%. Stricter rules from the Integrity Council for the Voluntary Carbon Market have left most existing projects ineligible for credits. Falling carbon prices have further reduced incentives, creating a difficult investment climate for LPG and other cookstove programmes. Alternatives to LPG are emerging, although not yet at scale. Electric pressure cookers, when powered by renewable energy, eliminate indoor pollution altogether, but are limited by cost and inconsistent electricity supply. Bioethanol stoves, fuelled by crops or agricultural residues, burn cleanly but face land use and scalability constraints.

Community-level approaches, such as Ripple Africa’s Changu Changu Moto, show how simple, low-cost interventions can achieve significant impacts where modern fuels are not viable. While these solutions fall short of ideal sustainability, they align with local situations and budgets, making them vital and realistic in the near term.

Note: The author is employed on a part-time basis by Abatable.

• Further reading: ‘Nigeria pushes for switch to clean cooking, despite energy market challenges’. The release of a National Clean Cooking Policy in Nigeria in April 2024, designed to offer clean cooking systems to the 30 million households in Nigeria that currently burn wood in their kitchens, could transform the economy of Nigeria and West Africa.
• Although energy access is improving, progress towards 2030 targets requires ‘greater collective effort’. What more needs to be done?